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Publicysta i laureat Nagrody Nobla z ekonomii Paul Krugman dostrzega analogię między Sejmem w szlacheckiej Polsce a Senatem USA, przepowiadając pó 2;żartem upadek Ameryki.
W dzisiejszym “New York Timesie” Krugman pisze o regu 2;ach proceduralnych w Senacie, które umożliwiają pojedynczym senatorom blokowanie nominacji do rządu po to, by wytargować dla swego stanu korzystne inwestycje albo fundusze.
Senator z Partii Republika 4;skiej (GOP) Christopher Bond uży 2; tych regu 2;, aby zmusić rząd i zdominowany przez Demokratów Kongres do zaaprobowania projektu budowlanego w Kansas City w jego macierzystym stanie Kansas.
Bond przez 9 miesięcy blokowa 2; w tym celu nominację szefa General Services Administration, agencji federalnej, która zajmuje się budynkami i zakupami rządowymi.
Ostatnio inny senator republika 4;ski Richard Shelby zablokowa 2; w ten sposób wszystkie 70 nominacji na stanowiska nie obsadzone jeszcze przez administrację prezydenta Baracka Obamy.
Shelby domaga się zgody administracji i Kongresu na powstanie centrum antyterrorystycznego w swoim stanie Alabama i kontraktu na budowę tankowca.
Krugman zwraca uwagę, że w przesz 2;ości senatorowie rzadko korzystali ze wspomnianej możliwości blokowania posunięć rządu.
Obecnie jednak życie polityczne w USA jest dużo bardziej spolaryzowane i będąca w opozycji GOP – jak twierdzi autor – robi wszystko, aby utrudnić pracę ekipie Obamy.
Efektem – kontynuuje – jest paraliż procesu legislacyjnego, który uniemożliwia przeprowadzenie ważnych reform.
Noblista przywo 2;uje przyk 2;ad polskiego Sejmu w XVII i XVIII wieku, który – jak przypomina – by 2; unieruchomiony przez liberum veto, co doprowadzi 2;o do upadku Polski. Podobny los – dodaje pó 2;żartem – grozi Ameryce z powodu samowoli senatorów.
“Jesteśmy sparaliżowani przez procedurę. Zamiast powtórki zmierzchu i upadku Cesarstwa Rzymskiego, powtarzamy rozpad XVIII-wiecznej Polski” – pisze prowokacyjnie.
Przypominając, że po rozbiorze Polski powsta 2; Mazurek Dąbrowskiego zaczynający się od s 2;ów: “Jeszcze Polska nie zginę 2;a”, autor konkluduje: “Cóż, Ameryka jeszcze nie zginę 2;a, ale Senat nad tym pracuje”.(PAP)
Joseph Stiglitz Globalization Lecture 43min
Nobel Prize-winning economist Joseph Stiglitz speaks about his book, "Making Globalization Work." This event took place on October 13, 2006, at Google's Mountain View, CA, headquarters as part of the
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Papantonio and Joseph Stiglitz on the Economic Freefall
Its been almost two years since the economy began its downward spiral, and to this day the very folks on Wall Street who caused this mess are still sitting in powerful positions at the top of Americas financial services companies. If you examine the root causes of our current crisis, it becomes painfully obvious that the big bankers decided that they could take as much risk as possible without any regard to the well-being of their clients. As a result, banks lost money, their clients lost money, and taxpayers lost money when we had to bail them out. Mike Papantonio talks about how this started and what we need to do prevent another meltdown with Nobel Prize-winning economist Joseph Stiglitz, author of the new book Freefall: America, Free Markets, and the Sinking of the World Economy.
PART 1
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Papantonio and Joseph Stiglitz on the Economic Freefall - PT. 2/2
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Economist Joseph Stiglitz, investor Bill Ackman (Pershing Square), and NY Times journalist Andrew Ross Sorkin discussed toxic assets, stress tests, bank bailout with Charlie Rose on April 24, 2009.
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Avatar Film - Israel attack on Gaza Genocide of Palestinians
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Gaza, February 6, 2010 (Pal Telegraph) - The Energy and Natural Resources Authority in Gaza warned that a severe shortage of fuel will force it to shut down electricity by Sunday.
Kanan Abaid, head of the authority, said on Saturday that only enough fuel is available for one more day, warning of a crisis if the station stopped working.
He pointed out that the decline in station production is a result of Israeli restrictions on fuel import, constituting a collective punishment of all Gaza Strip residents.
If Israel does not resume supplying the besieged Gaza Strip with fuel, the company will not be able to provide electricity on Sunday morning, which means that Gaza will descend into darkness.
The company has already been forced to cut off electricity for eight hours per day in different areas of the Gaza Strip.
Photo: Eman Jomaa
The Truth About the 2009 Gaza Massacre The Truth
OBAMA knows the TRUTH about attack on Gaza!
Obama promised to take a different approach to Bush in dealing with terrorism. He promised to bring world peace and to close Guantanmo within a year of being in office.Obama has been bombing Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq and Yemen for the past year. He has also been supporting Israel's 3-year blockade on Gaza. So how are his policies different to that of George Bush's? Where's the promised "change"?
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Nazi book burning 1933 -1945 Israel did the same Tens of thousands of Palestinian books destroyed after Israel’s establishment, Ben-Gurion University researcher says
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On May 10, 1933, in front of the Berlin Opera, propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels presided over the notorious book burning. The Hitler regime had drawn up lists of scholars and writers unacceptable to the New Order. Among them were Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, Alfred Döblin, Erich Maria Remarque, Carl von Ossietzky, Kurt Tucholsky, Hugo von Hofmannsthal, Erich Kästner, and Carl Zuckmayer. These authors were deemed to have created works that were decadent, materialistic, representative of "moral decline" or "cultural Bolshevism." For a translation and transcription please visit
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Tens of thousands of Palestinian books destroyed after Israel’s establishment, Ben-Gurion University researcher says
Commentary by David Duke: Once more we see the reality of Zionism as compared with its benevolent face. Both candidates in the U.S. Senate election made statements during the campaign that “Israel was an example for the whole world.” In addition to horrendous terror and ethnic cleansing of Palestinians, indiscriminate bombing and murder, and hundreds of thousands of Palestinian victims tortured in Israeli dungeons, now we find one more example of how Israel is an example for the world. As this Jewish doctoral student shows, the Israeli state Judaized the country and cutting off its Arab neighbors from their nation and culture. Sounds to me a lot like what is going on in the United States.
from the Israel News, Ynet Published: 01.28.10, 20:59 / Israel News
Israel plundered and destroyed tens of thousands of Palestinian books in the years after the State’s establishment, according to a doctoral thesis to be submitted next month by a Ben-Gurion University researcher.
In an interview with the researcher published on al-Jazeera’s website Thursday, he claimed that Israel destroyed the Palestinian books in the framework of its plan to “Judaize the country” and cut off its Arab residents from their nation and culture.
According to the doctoral dissertation, Israeli authorities collected tens of thousands of Arab books in Jerusalem, Jaffa, Haifa, Safed, and other towns that were home to Arabs. Israeli officials proceeded to hand out about half the books, while destroying the second half, characterizing them as a “security threat,” the researcher said.
In his al-Jazeera interview, the researcher claimed that, based on Israeli archives, IDF troops plundered the books from the homes of Palestinians expelled during the “Nakba” and handed them over to authorities. The State proceeded to establish a library in Jaffa and other towns for the books, he said.
Cultural Massacre
The researcher told al-Jazeera that according to documents he possesses, Israel destroyed 27,000 books in 1958, claiming that they were useless and threatened the State. Authorities sold the books, most of them textbooks, to a paper plant, he said.
“This was a cultural massacre undertaken in a manner that was worse than European colonialism, which safeguarded the items it stole in libraries and museums,” the researcher charged.
Shoe Bombers, crotch bombers, 9/11 and Israel
How much has Israeli control of American foreign policy cost the people of the United States?The government and media has worked mightily to keep the American people from fully realizing that the Zionist domination of our politics and support for the murderous Israeli regime, has directly led to 9/11 and other acts of terrorism against Americans around the world.Their power in media and politics has also led us into catastrophic wars in Iraq and Afghanistan with thousands of American casualties and billions of dollars spent, for what? For Israel, that's what.The PhD who teaches International relations, dares to tell the truth!
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Annual presidential speech about State typically named title "State of the Union" this time appear reviews this speech entitled "the status of the Empire," Justin ' and Raimondo of 29 January, 2010. Apparently won in the United States forces "Imperial" of republika 4;skimi i.e. complex military defence by Israel lobby.
One of the main characteristics of speech for this year's President of the Palestinian issue Obamy is ominiecie and przemilczenie nuclear arsenals of Israel in the United States are not allowed to speak even though in the press of the Israeli newspaper Ha ' aretz appear such titles as "Koszmarem Israel is the possibility of loss nuclear monopoly in the Middle East." Writes the monopoly were US President Jimmy Carter in his book of 2007, under the title "Palestine peace not Apartheid,." Nuclear monopoly Israel continued, but in 2010 President Obama or words about this and not skipping all the matter an uncomfortable for peace in the Middle East, more than 60 years zak 2;óconego conflict in Palestine.
The early idea reconstruction "Jews and only for Jews" after almost two thousand years of the Jewish State, there appears to be impossible. Exclusive Jewish State cannot exist only on the basis of "apartheidu," without simultaneously promoting regional democracy among the population of Palestine.
Jews in Palestine just treat Palestinians as Germany traktowali Jews in ghettos in time of war. Block the supply of food, medicines and building materials from the Gaza Strip, and destruction where sanitation is an example of terroryzowania residents. At the same time to improve the reputation of Israel in the world, Israel sent the hospital to Haiti, for which this hospital, za 2;atwi 2; each landing outside the queue to the French and other zgorszeniu.
Case reconcile Jewish Apartheid with peace in Palestine is hopeless in that respect as the Jews ożenieni from Arabkami. Matter complicate instructions kapelanów-Rabbis for the army, in which Professor Israel Szahak see instructions there methods terror Rabbis for Jewish communities by one thousand years to mid nineteenth century. Before moving to Israel rabbis methods of terror, terror together with privacy was used in the context of the Imperial Russian Soviet. Currently as methods of terror rabbis in Palestine is conflict axis-Israel with the world of Islam, which is oskarżany with a kind of islamo-fascism.
President Obama said that US troops returning from Iraq already, while its generals claim that 50,000 US troops will remain there permanently and will participate in the pacyfikacyjnych. In Afghanistan the current escalation takes year and by promises if evacuation of troops to the United States and NATO. Anybody believes in these promises.
Despite the criticism of the Government of Bush's for zad 2;użanie Treasury costs Armia, Obama makes the same and again excluded from military expenditure budget, which zad 2;uży 2;y trillion dollars over treasure and that further growth is still excluded from the official US budget. Similarly as in time of war in Vietnam, the then President Lyndon Baines Johnson, so now Barack Hussein Obama may become President for one term, like the Johnson. It was an ambitious reform programme health etc. with gigantycznych cost Armia are dictated by the interests of Americans axis-Israel and agroindustrial complex military-that more and more earnings on different types of prywatyzacji war and occupation and pacyfikacyjnych action.
Strange is przemilczenie in major speech President Obamy foreign policy and transfer of these cases, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, at the time when the United States officially occurs in the United Kingdom in defence of the charge "of the British pudla Bush ' and ' in person ' and former Prime Minister Blair. With regard to the violation by Blair ' and of international law involving the Government in "war of choice" and not "necessarily" against Iraq. As you may recall assault on Iraq was determined by Pope John Paul II as a violation of international law and attack this far has around one million killed in Iraq.
Imperialna sphere of influence us borders amerka 4;skich financial capacity. No foreign bases which are not evident in approximately one hundred is 737. The facility ready for use US military forces all over the globe. At the American security guarantees given opportunity to approximately one hundred customers worldwide are so worth as cheques without coverage. This is due to guaranteed mutual destruction if nuclear exchange between the US and salw after-Soviet nuclear arsenal of Moscow, by Professor Carpenter 's, Vice-President of Cato Institution in Washington. Issue by us cheques without security of a foreign country, providing the ability to penetrate and even control the armed forces of the Washington-client.
The matter is complicated by the fact that the great increase in electricity production in China so do River, China are also a member of the Club guaranteed mutual destruction in time of war. The US is so far superior economically and it has become militarily than Russia and China taken together, but the theoretical kind of balance-terror is decisive because crucial is called a "balance of fervor ' effects bluffowania fur–us. Bluff failed.%0 recently in Georgia and showed that despite the porazki in the media, still us "best the Government can buy" which is the best government money can buy. "
The current state of the Empire is worsening in the media world on a kind of "." Economic basis is the State of the US economy is currently in crisis debts and US economy threatens a sudden zapaścią, as once in starożytnyn Rome, as currently happens in the US, where the capital formation process. Empire us live in t. RM. "Bizarro World" the media "world on a kind of" by Justin ' and Raimondo. This sudden and threatens not expected falls so that the efforts of the President of the second term Obamy do not have much impact on the fate of the USA. Obama is helpless and without support Jewish money cannot perform promises improvement in Palestine and rank it promises of lobby and enormous expenditure for military and end of health care based on the theme of profit and not for the good of the patient. Far Obama was not able to carry out the reforms obiecanych and most likely their perform all one whether President four or eight years.
Pochodne money manipulated by "quantum theory" or spekulantów-mathematicians equipped super-computers, potknę 2;y to szwindlu trillion dollars and caused the global crisis of confidence by Scott ' Patterson ' and author of the book "the Quanta" ISDN 978-0-307-45337-2. By this he writes as a new type of bystrych mathematicians mastering and heavily damaged the stock exchange in New York on 6go August, 2007.
In the Bank Morgan Stanley, Peter Mueller, financial engineer, known as "Quant" zawiadywa 2; Fund: "Process Driven" Treading, that £ within several years six billion dollars. Mueller began on statistically selected companies, potential fall their values on the New York Stock Exchange. Quant as a new type of investor-spekulanta began to dominate transactions quotes in the early years of the 21st century, by using mathematical models that giving opportunity to reliable risk assessment stock transactions.
Unfortunately promising mathematical risk assessment is not perfect, and when critical they has resulted in losses and so called Domino, that is, to this case to render katastrofalnie rapid sales of securities by the spekulantów type Quanta. The resulting panic and stock-market crash led to wielomiliardowe loss. The higher the demand for cash was the more decreased prices on the stock exchange in confusion, which none of financial engineers was not able to understand.
The total lack of transparency Quant '-financial engineers caused that could not be established, which sparked the crisis fund. Began to wonder how high losses individual banks are willing under Security. Complex financial transactions made by engineers were not understood by bankers, who were happy while these transactions will bring great profits.
When broken on a stock exchange with obscure reasons for them, not you can even determine which Fund initiated the crisis. Situation look like poker, no one knew, what are the other key players in the stock exchange and the financial market, and who and how blefuje.
With increasing confusion Peter Mueller decided to quickly sell shares held by the Global Fund, to pause, decrease the Fund led by him. None of the Governors of the Bank was unable to help in learning decision because no sedna transaction "quantum theory" and derivatives understood money and not because of it until they give great revenue to the Bank.
Real estate market collapse due to excessive charging homes mortgage debt and fraudulent bad certification mortgages as equally certain securities and bonds of the Treasury, the financial situation has changed substantially and evaluation and calculation of risk transactions financial engineers were not effective, in the new situation.
As you know one quarter of the houses in the United States "is under water," which presents a much lower market value than 55589 on these homes mortgage debts. Panic on the real estate market has grown and collapse caused great losses for banks and investment funds worldwide. Crisis in the highest in history was caused by swindle mortgage debt on trillion dollars, due to errors in calculating financial risk by engineers, szerzy 2; it for the entire world and multi miliardowe losses as never before in history.
Initially I financial engineers ' eyes mydlić "investors and cause instantaneous increase in value of shares on the stock exchange, while increased loss of investment funds managed by" quantum theory "-engineers from financial risk. Confusion soon led to enormous risk account losses in the holding of Americans, in the value of their pension funds and the value of their homes, which traditionally was seen in the USA as the main basis for the financial security of American families.
On 24 January 2010 State assistance grants an opportunity to banks and kompaniom insurance by us, the treasure of downloaded taxes, officially classified as "State security" secrets so that the citizens do not have access to the marketing of correctness of America, which in itself is a violation of the United States Constitution. This is largely due to the spekulacjami using fictitious "derived money."
Prof. Pogonowski
Born Sept. 3, 1921Lwów, Poland
in Dec 1939 left Warsaw. Dec 30, 1939 arrested by Ukrainians serving the Gestapo in Dukla, then transferred to Barwinek, Krosno, Jaslo, Tarnów, Oswiecim, arrived in Oranienburg-Sachsenhausen on Aug. 10, 1940.
April 19, 1945 started on the Death March of Brandenburg from Sachsenhausen; escaped gunfire of SS-guards and arrived to Schwerin and freedom on May 2, 1945.
September 1945 arrived in Brussels, Belgium; obtained admission as a regular student at the Catholic University: Institute Superieur de Commerce, St. Ignace in Antwerp.
in 1954 graduated in Civil Engineering at the top of his class. Was invited to join honorary societies: Tau Beta Pi (general engineering honorary society), Phi Kappa Phi (academic honorary society equivalent to Phi Beta Kappa), Pi Mu (mechanical engineering honorary society), and Chi Epsilon (civil engineering honorary society). Taught descriptive geometry at the University of Tennessee;
in 1955 graduated with M.S. degree in Industrial Engineering.
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Bush Iraq Bush's nomination of Wolfowitz as president of the World Bank
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Corporation control of the Free World and economic hitman story Wenezuela
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Iraq
You want some water keep running
Primeval Forest in Poland is the last lowland mixed primeval forest in Europe. This UNESCO World Heritage Site
in Poland
Once-threatened bison thrive in Eastern Europe
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Located at the heart of the old continent, Bialowieza Primeval Forest is the last lowland mixed primeval forest in Europe. This UNESCO World Heritage Site is famous for its wild population of European Bison.
A Day in my Forest Poland for Obama
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A Day in my Forest
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Ptaki Polski ( Polish Birds) to all my Jewish frieds born on Poland never forget where you were born
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Emigrant, Polish Arabian Stallion at Furioso
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Bialowieza Primeval Forest.avi
This is the real problem with Americas we watch sports but not learn history and geography
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World War II was a war of hatred: institutionalized hatred, ethnic hatred, popularized hatred. Born of this hatred, monstrous actions taken by ordinary people resulted in, among other things, the mass-murder of millions of civilians. Long after the guns have been silenced, the spirit of animosities energized by World War II between peoples, between cultures, and between religious groups stays alive within some people's hearts. World War II and its spirit of hatred will continue to live on until reconciliation between these groups is complete.
Young people born a generation or two after the end of World War II generally have little natural interest in nursing animosities born of earlier eras. These animosities, in order to live on, have to be carefully cultivated in younger people by those who may feel their interests are served by doing so. Surprisingly, there have been systematic attempts by some to keep these animosities alive by devising mythological accounts of what happened preceding World War II, during the War, and in the aftermath of the War. Even more surprisingly, some of these mythologies have been advanced by people from groups who were victimized in the War, people who should have the strongest vested interest in the truth being propagated.There are many versions of these mythologies, but one in popular currency in mid-1990's North America distils roughly to this: an outside force known as the Nazis forcibly gained control of Germany and under totalitarian military rule forced a policy of war and ethnic hatred and extermination on a frightened but generally unwilling German populace. According to this myth, the real story of genuine ethnic hatred can be found among Jewish people and gentiles who lived in Poland, whose alleged long-standing animosity pre-dated the War, and extends beyond the end of the War to this day. The myth-speakers claim that the Polish nation was the true anti-Jewish state, and that atrocities perpetrated on countless Jewish people on Polish soil in German-occupied Poland were carried out with great relish by a willing Polish populace that was tired of dealing with a Jewish sub-culture that had been already relegated to ghettos prior to the War. The existence of the myth of non-support by the German people of the actions of the Nazi regime even motivated the title and thesis of a recent doctoral dissertation turned into book by Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, "Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust" (New York: A.A. Knopf, 1996.) Goldhagen documents the involvement of ordinary Germans in carrying out what today are referred to as Nazi atrocities.
As Goldhagen was clarifying the role of the Germans, others were perpetuating the myths. In April, 1996, propagation of the anti-Polish myth was advanced by the film "Shtetl," shown on Public Television in the United States. The film falsely suggests Polish complicity in the Holocaust. Through its own baseless and malicious claims about Polish people, the film is unwittingly a study of the encouragement of ethnic hatred by Jewish people toward Polish gentiles. Israeli students in the film are shown making a series of claims, sometimes gleefully, about alleged Polish involvement in the Holocaust, including attempts to shift the blame for Nazi crimes from German people to Polish people. The students even mocked Polish rescue efforts, seemingly oblivious to the fact that the Germans punished Polish gentiles collectively for providing any form of assistance to Jewish people, or even for not turning them in.
The film "Shtetl" focused negatively on the local Catholic church and priest several times. In actual well-documented fact, Polish gentiles helped Jewish people in Poland extensively during World War II. This assistance included the hiding of tens of thousands of Jewish people in the homes of Polish gentiles, which put the gentiles' entire families at risk of death. Several thousand Polish gentiles, including men, women, and children, were burned alive or otherwise summarily executed for the crime of hiding or assisting Jews. As an example of local Catholic Church involvement, it is ironic that the wartime pastor of the very Catholic church that was featured in the film was murdered because he was assisting Jews. His name was Father Henryk Opiatowski of Bransk. Yet, Father Opiatowski was never mentioned in the film! In no other country during the war were people subjected to death in this way for providing assistance to Jewish people. These students of the Holocaust were certainly taught how anti-Semitism produced six million Jewish deaths in the Holocaust; apparently they did not also learn how anti-Polonism produced three million Polish gentile deaths during the occupation--the Polish aspect of the Holocaust. Since the students in the film Shtetl were not eyewitnesses to the horrors of the Holocaust, they may very well be a window into the way the Holocaust is being taught in some Jewish homes and schools. If the purpose of teaching about the Holocaust is to never forget how ethnic hatreds can be nurtured to the point of destroying a people (and it should be), then Holocaust teaching will fail if along the way it teaches young Jewish people to hate Polish people.
There is another example of an obstacle to Jewish-Polish goodwill that is perhaps more significant and potentially longer-lasting in promoting ethnic hatred by Jewish people towards Polish people than the film Shtetl. It is an exhibit in the Holocaust Museum in Washington, D.C., that falsely presents events that occurred in Kielce, Poland in 1946 as part of the Holocaust. It refers to the clearly Soviet-staged violence in Kielce as a "Polish pogrom." [The Museum has changed the text since this writing.] To many visitors of the Holocaust Museum, the exhibit by its very inclusion seems to suggest that after the end of World War II, a liberated Polish populace chose to continue Hitler's work of exterminating Jewish people. The study you are now reading examines these events in Kielce, and shows that the suggestions of a Polish-led extension of the Holocaust are patently false. The Kielce Pogrom had nothing to do with the German-engineered Holocaust. It had everything to do with the Soviet-engineered strangulation of the Polish nation.Like all effective myths, those related to World War II have some elements of truth underlying them. In conjunction with the construction of these myths, though, actual facts and events have been distorted or misrepresented, and certainly the contexts within which they occurred have been falsely stated. Sadly, the distortions, misrepresentations and falsehoods are sometimes purposely and systematically advanced by those who feel a need to humiliate the Polish nation and members of the Polish ethnic group from around the world. Those who today seek to humiliate or destroy people because of their ethnic association are kindred spirits to those who sought to humiliate or destroy people because of their ethnic association in the World War II era. Let me say unequivocally: anti-Semitism in the World War II era or now is wrong and it is evil. On the flip side of the coin bearing the image of anti-Semitism is the image of anti-Polonism. The coin of anti-Semitism cannot be melted down and destroyed without also melting down and destroying anti-Polonism.
I will state up front that I have a vested interest in the truth about World War II and its aftermath being clearly illuminated. I am a veteran of 64 months of imprisonment in Gestapo prisons, concentration camps, and death marches. My own ordeal, and the suffering and death of many of my Polish and Jewish friends and prison-mates, not to mention the sacrifices made by the young men who fought and died as soldiers, will have been rendered meaningless if the hatred of Jewish people by the Nazi leadership and various members of the German nation are simply replaced by hatred of Polish people by Jewish people, or vice-versa. Those who even today perpetuate myths and misconceptions about animosities associated with World War II and its aftermath are not merely bearing false witness--they are willing accomplices to the spirit of hatred of World War II, a frightening spirit embodied in its purest evil form by Adolf Hitler.
I have seen, first hand, the disgusting, murderous results of ethnic hatred. I have devoted the latter part of my life to writing about the long-term coexistence of Polish Jews and gentiles within Poland, and am committed to trying to help diffuse animosities stemming from World War II. In this spirit of friendship and respect, I wrote and had published earlier this decade a documentary history entitled "Jews in Poland: The Rise of Jews as a Nation From Congressus Judaicus in Poland to the Knesset in Israel." If World War II presented any lessons to the people of the world, it showed what can eventually happen if ethnic animosities are allowed to fester and grow.
The study you are now reading is a quest for Polish-Jewish reconciliation. For it to be successful, those who would join this quest must have one thing in common: respect for the truth. As part of this quest, I will address how Jewish-Polish animosities have been cultivated in the aftermath of the War, and in particular how Soviet actions and Soviet-induced events and situations contributed to or drove the process of cultivating the animosities. In particular, I will take the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the Kielce Pogrom to discuss this event in detail and use it as a basis for discussion of the larger geopolitical situation. This study deals primarily with the results of Soviet-institutionalized hatred and the Soviet crime of provoking situations purposely designed to sour Polish-Jewish relations. In general, the public in Western countries knows very little about the specifics of these types of Soviet misdeeds.
For this study, the book "Poland, Communism, Nationalism, Anti-Semitism" by Michael Checinski (New York: Karz-Cohl Publishing, 1982) is an important source of information for the Cold War period. I will use Checinski's book as a resource to help illuminate the events and situations in the aftermath of World War II that relate to Polish-Jewish relations. Checinski's book details the relations between Poles and Jews in the postwar "People's" Republic of Poland and the damage done to these relations under the conditions created by the Soviets. Checinski was an insider of the Soviet-controlled terror apparatus. As a Jew who survived the Lodz Ghetto, Checinski was naturally very sensitive to Soviet policies which fomented and used anti-Semitic excesses in the satellite empire to serve Soviet purposes of the time. Checinski's book shows Soviet methods used to bring the destruction of law and morality to Poland and other satellite states. I also draw heavily on material from a book by Krystyna Kersten, "Poles, Slavs, Communism: The Anatomy of Half-Truth 1939- 1968." (Warsaw: Independent Publishing House, 1992) and also from "Pogrom of Jews in Kielce, July 4, 1946 by Bozena Szaynok (Warsaw: Bellona Publishing, 1992). Along the way, I will include some necessary background information relating to World War II. Overall, through this study I hope to help unravel some of the root causes and dynamics of Polish-Jewish relations after World War II, and how these ate strongly affecting Polish-Jewish relations even today.
THE KIELCE POGROM IN A NUTSHELL
A "pogrom", a Russian word that translates to "devastation, " is defined as "an organized massacre, especially of Jews in Russia, such as 1881, 1903, and 1905." (The New Lexicon Webster's Dictionary of the English Language, 1989.) Anti-Jewish violence in Russia was usually started with 'a false accusation that a ritual murder had been perpetrated on Christian children by local Jews. Violence directed against Jewish people that occurred on July 4, 1946, in the town of Kielce, referred to as the Kielce Pogrom, is aptly named for several reasons. For one, it was indeed organized. And as it will be explained in detail, it was organized by the Soviet-controlled terror apparatus in Poland, a captured country which was under Soviet occupation at the time. This pogrom, although not on Russian soil, was arranged by a totalitarian leadership centered in Russia and it was started with the same technique of planting a false accusation that a ritual murder had been perpetrated on Christian children. And as even the common dictionary definition shows, this is not the first time Russians have instigated this type of activity.
In the Kielce Pogrom, an uprising occurred over the span of many hours that resulted in the death of 41 Polish citizens: 39 Jews, and two gentiles. It was a horrible crime, and regrettably, there was some complicity among a very small number of gentile Poles in this inexcusable violence. These Polish criminals, as will be pointed out, were tried and convicted for their crimes. The reports, however, of the involvement of a mob of 15,000 cheering Polish citizens are completely untrue. Also, the idea that the uprising was of a spontaneous nature is also untrue. As it will be shown in this study, this event was carefully provoked and staged by the Soviet occupiers at that time. This event was staged to achieve specific political purposes dictated by Moscow's global strategy including Europe and the Middle East.
THE SOVIET-NAZI PARTNERSHIP
Why would Soviets want to stage an uprising that would embarrass Poland? After all, didn't both Poland and the Soviets fight alongside of Britain and the other allies in World War II? Didn't Hitler's German army invade both Poland and the Soviet Union, and isn't "the enemy of my enemy my friend?"
There is general public awareness that the United States and the Soviet Union were World War II partners in the Allied fight against Nazi Germany. Many fewer, however, are aware of the nearly two-year Nazi-Soviet partnership embodied in the German-Soviet Boundary and Friendship Treaty, which was signed on September 28, 1939. It divided all of Poland between Germany and the Soviet Union and contained secret provisions for the mutual extermination of potential Polish opponents of both Germany and the USSR. Both Germany and the USSR agreed to control their respective parts of Poland. This meant taking all necessary measures to contain and prevent the emergence of any potential Polish actions toward either Germany or the USSR, and then communicating with each other on the progress made toward the goals of the treaty. The treaty lasted until Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. Soviet hostility toward Poland and the desire of the USSR to control as much Polish territory as it could continued beyond the German invasion of Poland.
The Soviets implemented their part of the German-Soviet Boundary and Friendship Treaty by executing 21,857 members of the Polish leadership community, including many Jewish people. Katyn, in what is now Bielarus, contained the graves of 4443 such men and became a symbol of the mass execution of members of the upper echelon of Polish society in the Spring of 1940 At the same time Germany ran a parallel operation with the code name Aktion AB [Auserordentliche Befriedungsaktion, which translates to "extraordinary pacification"], culminating in the execution of about 20,000 Polish professionals.
Because of the German-Soviet Treaty to divide Poland among themselves, the Eastern half of Poland was under Soviet, not German, rule from September, 1939 to mid-1941. During that time, there were many Jewish people who collaborated with the Soviet terror apparatus against the conquered Polish State. Among the many eyewitnesses to those events is the famed Polish courier Jan Karski, who was made an honorary citizen of Israel for his efforts to worn an unresponsive West about the fate of Poland and Polish Jewry. In February, 1940, Karski reported: "Jews are denouncing Poles to the secret police and are directing the work of the communist militia from behind the scenes. Unfortunately, one must say that these incidents are very frequent." (Report to the Polish Government-in-Exile in London.)
Hundreds of published accounts, including Jewish ones, confirm that Jews were involved in the roundups of Polish soldiers and officials (e.g., at Rozyszcze and Kowel), the jailing and executions of Poles (e.g., at Lwow and Czortkow), and in policing the deportation of Poles, in cattle cars, to the Gulag (e.g., from Gwozdziec). By the time the Germans attacked their erstwhile Soviet ally in mid-1941, over one million Poles had been deported to distant and probable deaths from towns like Bransk. All of this occurred before the Jewish Holocaust got underway. Naturally, these events had a significant impact on Polish attitudes, though that was not the only factor influencing them
GERMAN OCCUPATION OF POLAND AND CONTROL OF JEWS
By mid-1941, Germany gained control of all of Poland and the Germans continued the establishment of Jewish ghettos that the Germans had started in 1939. Germans formed the Jewish ghettos by evicting hundreds of thousands of gentiles from their homes and then crowding many more Jewish families there than the space could reasonably accommodate. There were no Jewish ghettos in Poland before Germany started creating them in 1939. It is ironic that some people not well acquainted with the history of the ghettos have mistakenly thought that the ghettos were formed by a bigoted Polish population who spitefully wanted to segregate the Jewish population to selected areas. Instead, the real truth is that Polish people were unwillingly removed from their homes by the Germans to form the ghettos, and then the Polish people illegally aided the Jews by bringing them substantial amounts of food and other supplies.
In terms of living conditions, the ghettos formed by the Germans bore a haunting similarity to the concentration camps that the Germans had been organizing since 1933. The Polish Armed Resistance reported that 500,000 Jews were crowded into the Warsaw Ghetto: 600 people per acre. Hunger, and unspeakably poor hygienic and sanitary conditions resulted in the spreading of tuberculosis and other contagious diseases. The Central Commission for Investigation of Crimes Against Polish People reported: "The isolated ghetto is restricted to internal trade, consisting of people's private property, clothing, and household goods which are sold at low prices for extremely expensive food ... There is no heating fuel in the ghetto ... The health and sanitary conditions are beyond description--there is a monstrous hunger and poverty ... Overcrowded streets are full of aimless, pale, and starving people ... People die in the streets ... An orphanage is being overcrowded with daily arrivals of newborn babies ... The Germans' plunder of once-affluent Jews continues ... as well as the treatment of Jews in an exceptionally brutal manner ..."
Each ghetto had its own Jewish Council [Judenrat] which oversaw day-to-day affairs and a Jewish police force which carried out German orders to supply laborers and, as pointed out by Jewish historians such as Isaiah Trunk and Hannah Arendt, to round up Jews for deportation to death camps. Thus, relatively few Germans were needed for such "Aktions," or official actions by the German government against the Jewish people. Nor did their success involve any type of cooperation from Polish gentiles. Because the system set up by the Germans did not rely on Polish police, even the opportunity for the Polish police to aid the German roundup of the Jews was marginal or non-existent, as pointed out by Raul Hilberg, the foremost Holocaust historian, in his important work, "Victims, Perpetrators, Bystanders." Conditions in the Bransk ghetto have been described in Isaiah Trunk's "Judenrat" (New York: Macmillan, 1972) and in "Bransk: Book of Memories" (New York: Shoulson Press, 1948).
Polish gentiles certainly were not the masterminds who formed the neither ghettos nor collaborators with the Germans on the brutal treatment of the Jews. To the contrary, Polish gentiles sabotaged German plans for the starvation of ghetto inmates. The Polish gentiles made illegal deliveries of food to the ghettos--including about 250 tons of flour per day. Jozef Dabrowski and others were shot by the Germans for making such deliveries. By then the daily food ration in Warsaw was 184 calories for a Jew, 669 for a Polish gentile, and 2,613 for a German. Eighty percent of the food consumed in the ghetto was smuggled in by Polish gentiles. The supply of raw materials into the ghetto was forty times greater than that officially permitted by the Germans, according to the records of the Jewish Council of the Warsaw Ghetto. (I.C. Pogonowski, "Jews in Poland: A Documentary History, pp. 106-107.")
After Germany's invasion of Russia, Adolf Hitler verbally ordered the "Final Solution of the Jewish question," namely the extermination of eleven million European Jews. To work out and communicate the details of implementing the "Final Solution," the Wannsee Conference was held in Berlin on January 20, 1942. At the conference, the leaders of the German civil service established the specific means by which the genocide was to be conducted. As a direct result of the conference, the Berlin government announced an invitation for bids from German industry to purchase equipment for an industrial process to exterminate eleven million European Jews.
According to plans developed at the Conference, terrorized Jewish personnel were to be used in the extermination process. Also, the plans further directed that the extermination camps were to be isolated from the Polish population for maximum secrecy. For this reason, the camp guards were recruited from Belarus, Latvia, Lithuania and Ukraine. Despite German terror and German attempts to keep Poles in the dark about the Germans' actions, radio broadcasts made by the Polish resistance regularly informed the West of German atrocities in Poland. (I.C. Pogonowski, "Jews in Poland: A Documentary History, New York: Hippocrene Books Inc., 1993, pp. 110, 119, 120, 121, 124, 125).
Massive deportations from the Warsaw ghetto in the summer of 1942 (to the Treblinka death camp) were not carried out with the assistance of any Polish agency. Indeed, in German-occupied Poland, there was not even a vestige of a Polish government at that time. Instead, the deportations were organized by the Jewish police in coordination with the Judenrat and the occupying German forces. Horrifying descriptions of this Aktion are found in the diaries of Emanuel Ringelblum, the chronicler of the Warsaw ghetto, and elsewhere. These sad events are only a part, but a significant part, of the eventual roundup and execution by the Germans of a large proportion of Poland's Jews in what later came to be referred to as the Holocaust.
On April 19, 1943, a Jewish uprising began in the Warsaw Ghetto as Germans started the final liquidation of the Jews there. The massacre ended on May 8, 1943. Professor Marian Fuks later wrote: "It is absolutely certain fact that without help and active participation of the Polish resistance movement it would have not been possible at all to bring about the uprising in the Warsaw Ghetto." ("The Bulletin of the Jewish Historical Institute in Poland," July-December 1989, p. 44).
It should go without saying that the German occupation and brutal control of Poland was not welcomed by the Polish people. Unfortunately, neither could the Polish people find solace in the eventual Soviet re-entry into Poland and their consequent program of brutal control. Upon Soviet re-entry into Poland in 1944, the Soviet terror apparatus was systematically liquidating the remnants of the Polish Home Army and any perceived Polish opponents of a Soviet takeover and control of Poland. It is an undeniable fact that many Jews, usually communist functionaries, were collaborating with the Soviets in denouncing, jailing, and executing Poles. (See for example, "Karta," no. 15; Oswald Rufeisen's account in Nechama Tec's "In the Lion's Den"; Wanda Lisowska's 1946 account on conditions in Ejszyszki found in "Zeszyty Historyczne," no. 36.) Poles suspected of having either collaborated with the Germans or of being anti-Semitic could be, and were, executed with impunity. For example, in Drohiczyn, nine Polish gentiles were murdered by local Jews because they were falsely suspected of killing a Jew, a crime in fact perpetrated by the Soviets (Warszawa: Archiwum Polski Podziemnej, Dokumenty, 1994).Tens of thousands of Polish gentiles were executed in repressions that affected the lives of hundreds of thousands of innocent Polish gentiles. The foregoing are not invented facts: Both Simon Wiesenthal and Stanislaw Krajewski, vice-chairperson of the Polish Council of Christians and Jews, among others, have publicly admitted their shame on this account. Under these types of wartime circumstances, where Jews were successfully encouraged to betray Polish gentiles to the Soviet authorities, animosities toward Jews in the general population were not a matter of anti-Semitism, but simply a matter of survival. Active Jewish collaboration and popular support for Soviet forces invading Poland occurred from the beginning of the War. In the book "Poles, Jew, Socialists--The Failure of an Ideal," edited by Antony Polonsky, et al. (London: The Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 1996), Dov Levin writes "The Red Army entered Wilno [Poland] early on the morning of Tuesday, 19 September 1939, to an enthusiastic welcome by Wilno's Jewish residents, in sharp contrast to the Polish population's reserve and even hostility. Particular ardor was displayed by leftist groups and their youthful members, who converged on the Red Army tank columns bearing sincere greetings and flowers."
Despite these enormous obstacles, and the fact that Polish gentiles also were undergoing their own Holocaust which consumed several million victims, hundreds of thousands of Polish gentiles risked their lives to help Jews. In Warsaw alone, before the uprising of 1944, which resulted in its total destruction, some 15,000 Jews were being sheltered. Emanuel Ringelblum estimated that as many as 60,000 out of the city's 700,000 Christian residents were involved in the rescue efforts. Assistance has been documented at more than 600 Catholic churches, monasteries, convents, and church-run orphanages throughout Poland. Poles form the largest group recognized by Yad Vashem as "Righteous Gentiles," as many as 40% of all those recognized. Yad Vashem is a Jewish organization devoted to honoring those who saved Jews from the Holocaust.
Just as there were some Jewish collaborators during World War II, small numbers of Polish gentiles also collaborated with the Germans. There is no justification or excuse for their actions, and neither was this conduct condoned or tolerated. With the active support of Polish public opinion, the Polish Underground passed and carried out many death sentences against anyone found collaborating with the Germans. It is regrettably true that collaborators, whether with the Nazis or the Soviets, whether Polish Jews or gentiles, were an effective force to contend with. But at the same time, they were tiny, marginal and unrepresentative groups in their respective communities.
Simon Wiesenthal has advocated the following wise and balanced assessment of that tragic period which consumed millions of Jewish and Polish lives: "Then the war came. It is at times like these that the lower elements in society surface--the blackmailers who would betray Jews ... On the other hand, the 30,000 or 40,000 Jews who survived, survived thanks to the help of the Poles. This I know." During the five years of German occupation most of the efforts to shelter Jews ended tragically for the Jewish victims and their Christian friends.
What do the leading Holocaust historians have to say about alleged Polish complicity in the Holocaust? Yisrael Gutman, director of research at the Yad Vashem Institute in Jerusalem and editor in chief of "The Encyclopedia of the Holocaust" (1990), has stated authoritatively: "All accusations against the Poles that they were responsible for the Final Solution are not even worth mentioning. Secondly, there is no validity at all in the contention that Polish attitudes were the reason for the siting [sic] of the death camps in Poland." And again: "I want to be unequivocal about this. When it is said that Poles supposedly took part in the extermination of the Jews on the side of the Germans, that is not true. It has no foundation in fact. There was no such thing as Poles taking part in the extermination of the Jewish population." Professor Gutman stated that the percentage of Poles who collaborated with the Germans was "infinitesimally small." He said this in a conversation with Polish Ambassador Dowgiallo (Harvey Sarner, "From Science to Diplomacy: A Pole's Experience in Israel," Brunswick Press, 1995). Richard Pipes of Harvard University, wrote in the introduction to I.C. Pogonowski's book, "Jews in Poland," published on the fiftieth anniversary of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising: "It must never be mistakenly believed that the Holocaust was perpetrated by the Poles. Nor must it be ignored that three million Poles perished at German hands." Szymon Datner, longtime director of Warsaw's Jewish Historical Institute, has been equally blunt: "Poles are not responsible for the crimes of the Holocaust."
Illinois Congresswoman Melissa Bean speaks about Barack Obama and the midwestern work ethic, at the 2008 Taste of Polonia, in Chicago, IL
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Pulaski Polish Parade Polska Parada Pulaskiego
GENERAL PULASKI MEMORIAL DAY, BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
A PROCLAMATION
Each year on this day, Americans pause to remember a patriot and champion of liberty who fought valiantly for the freedom of our Nation. During our struggle for independence, General Casimir Pulaski displayed heroic leadership and ultimately sacrificed his life in service to our country. His commitment to liberty remains an inspiration to us today, 230 years later, and it serves as a reflection of the many contributions Polish Americans have made to our national identity.
Born in Poland in 1745, Brigadier General Casimir Pulaski witnessed the occupation of Poland by foreign troops during his youth. He joined the struggle for Polish independence in 1768, fighting alongside his father with unwavering determination. Despite the tremendous courage of Pulaski and his compatriots, the foreign forces prevailed and Poland was divided among three of its neighbors. The young Casimir Pulaski was exiled, and, while in Paris, met America's envoy to France, Benjamin Franklin, and learned of our nascent quest for independence.
Arriving in America during the summer of 1777, General Pulaski quickly earned a commission and led his troops with admirable skill in a number of important campaigns. He would eventually become known as the "Father of the American Cavalry." In 1779, Pulaski was mortally wounded during the siege of Savannah while trying to rally his troops under heavy enemy fire. Before laying down his life for the United States, this Polish and American hero had earned a reputation for his idealism and his courageous spirit.
Pulaski's ideals live on today in the many Polish-American communities across the country. These neighborhoods continue to celebrate Polish culture, while adding immeasurably to our national identity. Their contributions have expanded our collective knowledge, pushing the boundaries of science, business, and the arts. With each passing year, the cooperation between the United States and Poland grows, supported by the dedication and commitment of Polish Americans to our shared history. Today, as we remember General Pulaski, we celebrate our strong friendship with Poland, and honor those Americans of Polish heritage.
NOW, THEREFORE, I, BARACK OBAMA, President of the United States of America, by virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and the laws of the United States, do hereby proclaim Sunday, October 11, 2009, as General Pulaski Memorial Day. I encourage all Americans to commemorate this occasion with appropriate programs and activities paying tribute to Casimir Pulaski and honoring all those who defend the freedom of our great Nation.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I have hereunto set my hand this ninth day of October, in the year of our Lord two thousand nine, and of the Independence of the United States of America the two hundred and thirty-fourth.
BARACK OBAMA
Casimir Pulaski was born in Podalia, Poland, on March 4, 1747. He had five sisters and two brothers. His father gave him a pony when he was five years old and a horse when he was eight years old. As a child, Casimir learned how to shoot a bulls-eye while riding a horse. His father sent him to Warsaw to go to school. Then his father sent him to the Court of Courtland to be a page for the Duke of Courtland. While Pulaski was there, the Russians took over Courtland, so Casimir had to return to Warsaw.
Pulaski's father organized a group called The Knights of the Holy Cross. The Knights fought against the Russians, because the Russians were trying to take over Poland. Pulaski recruited men to be in the Knights, and he fought with the Knights. They fought bravely against the Russians, but they lost. Casimir and the rest of the Knights were captured and sent to prison. Then he was banished from Poland. He went to Turkey. He and his father and his brothers trained men to fight against Russia. The Russians tried to capture them, but Pulaski escaped back to Poland, even though he had been banished from there.
When he got to Cracow, Poland, Pulaski joined the Polish Revolutionary Confederates who were trying to fight against the Russians. He fought bravely and he helped the Confederates win the Battle of Kukielki, which forced the Russians to leave Poland. He was a hero to the Polish people, but later, the king of Poland, King Stanislaus, turned against him, and he had to flee Poland again. Image courtesy of ArtToday.
Pulaski decided to go to America to help the colonists fight against the British. He got in touch with Benjamin Franklin, who was in Paris. Franklin gave him money to get to America and told the American Congress and George Washington about Casimir Pulaski.
After he got to America, Pulaski found General Washington in Philadelphia. Washington got the Congress to put Casimir Pulaski in charge of the American Cavalry. Near Brandywine, he saw the British planning a trap around the Americans. He led a charge against the British and defeated the trap. He was a hero to the Americans for saving them from the trap.
Pulaski trained men for the American Cavalry and the infantry. He wanted to start a special legion. The Congress gave him permission. He trained them to be experts on horseback. He led them to battle in New York City. On the way to New York, they had to pass through New Jersey. At Little Egg Harbor, they burned twenty British ships and took all their ammunition. Unfortunately, some of Pulaski 's friends died in the battle.
Casimir Pulaski and his Legion rode south to Charleston to help the people there fight against the British. They went after the British as they tried to escape to sea. Casimir and his men won again, capturing many British troops and supplies. Then Pulaski and his troops went to Savannah to try to capture the city from the British. As they were planning, an American soldier named James Curry informed the British of their plans, so the British were ready for the attack. Because of this, the Americans lost the battle and Casimir Pulaski got shot during the battle. He was badly wounded. The wounds became infected, and he became sick and died. He died on October 11, 1779. He was only 32 years old.
It was a very important thing that the hero Casimir Pulaski came to defend the colonies in the fight against Great Britain, and that is why children in Illinois get a holiday off from school on the first Monday of March. We honor the memory of Casimir Pulaski.
GENERAL PULASKI MEMORIAL DAY, 2009
BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Born in Poland in 1745, Brigadier General Casimir Pulaski witnessed the occupation of Poland by foreign troops during his youth. He joined the struggle for Polish independence in 1768, fighting alongside his father with unwavering determination. Despite the tremendous courage of Pulaski and his compatriots, the foreign forces prevailed and Poland was divided among three of its neighbors. The young Casimir Pulaski was exiled, and, while in Paris, met America’s envoy to France, Benjamin Franklin, and learned of our nascent quest for independence.
Pulaski’s ideals live on today in the many Polish-American communities across the country. These neighborhoods continue to celebrate Polish culture, while adding immeasurably to our national identity. Their contributions have expanded our collective knowledge, pushing the boundaries of science, business, and the arts. With each passing year, the cooperation between the United States and Poland grows, supported by the dedication and commitment of Polish Americans to our shared history. Today, as we remember General Pulaski, we celebrate our strong friendship with Poland, and honor those Americans of Polish heritage.
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Before State of the Union Speech President Obama reflects on Nazi Death Camp Auschwitz
Shalom שַׁבָּת שָׁלוֹ Please Share President Obama reflects on Nazi Death Camp Auschwitz before State of the Union Speech January 27, 2010 עוֹשֶׂה שָׁלוֹם בִּמְרוֹמָיו, הוּא יַעֲשֶׂה שָׁלוֹם עָלֵינוּ, וְעַל כָּל יִשְׂרָאֵל וְאִמְרוּ אָמֵן President Obama delivers remarks commemorating the 65th anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz and Birkenau in a taped message for the ceremony in Krakow, Poland, and Auschwitz-Birkenau. The ceremony brought together Polish officials, Holocaust survivors, and European and world leaders, including Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu.
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Śmierć rotmistrza Pileckiego 9/9 killed by the jews of NKWD
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Katyn
Katyn 7/14
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